Author: MONICA NYALIKAMI BIJAH
Introduction
The inherent strength of African women speaks profoundly of their capacity and intellect. They are resilient, prevailing in the face of adversity and courageously defying danger to ascend to prominence. The African woman has always been the embodiment of strength and inspiration, diligently holding her household together, even when societal or historical forces sought to diminish her visibility and influence. She has never wavered in rising to her tasks.
African Women in the Post-colonial Era
Before the advent of European colonialism, African women often held positions of significant influence and respect within their communities. They were central to the family unit, often serving as pillars of inspiration and guidance. Women were frequently active participants in the political affairs and decision-making processes of traditional institutions, demonstrating their inherent leadership and societal importance. Many African women were queens in their own right, widely revered within their homes and communities.
In the Ashanti Kingdom, for example, women wielded considerable political power, actively participating in crucial decision-making processes (Boahen,2000). According to Stoeltje (1997), the Queen Mother, a figure of immense influence, advised the King, significantly impacting the kingdom’s affairs. She was also responsible for selecting candidates for chieftaincy and ensuring the continuity of the royal lineage.
According to McGee (2015), economically, women were vital, engaged in diverse activities such as farming, trading, and crafts. Militarily, they participated in both warfare and peacekeeping efforts. Notably, Queen Yaa Asantewaa, the Queen Mother of Ejisu, led a significant rebellion against the British in 1900 (McCaskie,2007) underscoring the enormous influence wielded by women in the transformation of various societies. Beyond these public roles, women skilfully managed household affairs, raised children, and maintained family ties, ensuring the stability of social and family structures. They played critical roles in transmitting cultural traditions and values to future generations through informal education. Thus, women held positions of authority, influence, and responsibility, becoming integral to the societies’ social, economic, and political fabric.
Within the Benin Kingdom, Queen Idia, around 1482 AD, distinguished herself as a renowned warrior and trusted advisor to her son, Oba Esigie. Her counsel, mystical insights, and medicinal knowledge were instrumental in Oba Esigie’s military successes. In Egypt, Queen Cleopatra gained wide recognition from prominent kings such as Julius Caesar due to her powerful rule and influence over her people (Aneni, 2016).
Similarly, in the Oyo Kingdom, the Iyalode were high-ranking female officials who headed women’s affairs and advised the king on issues pertinent to women (Law, 1977, p.123). The Queen Mother, also known as the Iya Naso, played a crucial role in the selection and coronation of the king (Morton-Williams, 1964). Across various other African empires like Mali, Ghana, and Songhai, women consistently exercised leadership, advised rulers, and participated in decision-making. Economically, women often dominated market activities, controlling trade and commerce in numerous regions. According to Chuku (2009), within the Igbo society, women formed powerful organizations such as the Otu Umuada and Otu Inyumdi, serving as vital support networks for voicing concerns and protecting their interests (Chinua, 1958).
Evidently, women held significant power and authority across various kingdoms and empires throughout the African continent. While men held authority in some spheres, women possessed power in others, often leading to a shared balance of power and a form of gender equity and equality. The roles of African women thus extended far beyond managing household economies and raising children; they actively participated in trade, politics, and even warfare. This industrious and illustrious nature meant African women were not relegated to the kitchen, unlike their European counterparts or women in many other parts of the world.
It is important to acknowledge that although pre-colonial African societies were generally patriarchal, the extent of women’s inequality varied greatly across the continent. Women often employed diverse strategies to create and maintain a degree of autonomy, as seen among the powerful matrilineal women traders of Senegambia (Englebert & Dunn, 2019)
African Woman in the Colonial Era
The coming of the Europeans to Africa changed the status quo as women were relegated to the background in all aspects of social life, from politics to trade and commerce.
According to Englebert and Dunn (2019), colonialism forced both men and women to dedicate their time, energy, and sometimes their lives, to tasks like road construction, canal digging, and land clearing for their colonizers. This era intensified existing inequalities, with forced labor being a prime example, and women were particularly exploited, essentially treated as beasts of burden.
Iris Berger (2016:11) highlights that African women were deeply integrated into their communities’ economies before colonial rule, often more so than European women at the time. However, European intervention significantly diminished women’s standing across Africa. Mikell (1997) identifies some key factors that the colonialists used to reshape gender norms and relations. These factors included Christianity, which promoted monogamy and a domestic, subordinate role for women; Western education, which favored men; differing marriage systems, where Western marriages often provided women with property rights not available under traditional customs; and new legal systems that, despite supposedly recognizing African women’s independent rights, often relegated them to the status of legal minors requiring male guardians. The colonial imposition of forced labor for projects, incentivized wage labor migration for taxes, male urbanization, and the rise of cash-cropping in rural areas collectively created a gendered division of labor that continued even after the colonial period (Coquery- Vidrovitch, 1997).
The impact of these changes on African women varied regionally, but generally, colonialism established a social order that oppressed non-elite African women, significantly reducing their economic, political, and social standing (Romero 2015). Legally, the colonial system reinforced male dominance, often treating women as dependents and denying them land ownership essential for farming. Colonialism also introduced and normalized European gender role assumptions, solidifying a gendered division of labor and pushing women to the margins of the political sphere (Englebert and Dunn, 2019).
Englebert & Dunn (2019) have continued to bemoan the negative impact of colonialism on African women and gender roles. According to them, colonialism brought a major shift in sub- Saharan African gender roles. While traditional African cultures often allowed women public participation, European intervention significantly reduced their standing across the continent. Women’s legal status during colonization, particularly concerning property and inheritance, saw considerable changes. On one hand, based on Christian monogamy, European rulers sometimes granted widows and children more favorable inheritance rights than traditional systems. However, colonial legal systems also deepened male dominance within marriages and before the law. For instance, English common law considered women dependents with no capacity to own property. When Europeans took over fertile land for plantations, like in Kenya’s Kikuyu region, and men moved to cities, the remaining wives found it hard to get land for farming.
The disempowerment of African women within the colonial political economy stemmed largely from European colonial agents’ gendered assumption that men were the primary economic and political actors. This was particularly ironic given the central role of farming across much of Africa, a sphere often considered women’s work. Despite their involvement in this economic area, women generally couldn’t leverage it for economic or political gain, mainly due to existing traditional and new colonial gender limitations. As Gwendolyn Mikell (1997) points out, colonial regimes were able to achieve their aims only by using, building upon, and further distorting the gender hierarchy already present in African culture.
African Women in the Post-colonial Era
The institutions and structures set up by the colonialists only worsened the plight of the African woman under postcolonial rule.
Life in Africa is often challenging, especially for women. They face unequal opportunities in education and employment, along with violence both at home and in public. Moreover, many laws are discriminatory. In numerous African countries, statutory and customary laws restrict their access to land and other property. In some areas, married women have limited or no control over how their earnings are spent and don’t fully participate in household financial decisions, particularly in poorer families (Englebert and Dunn, 2019). Furthermore, women are largely underrepresented in politics across the continent, with very few exceptions (United Nations 2010). As Michael Kevane (2014) vividly puts it, for African women these disparities add up to unambiguously diminished welfare and capacity to fulfill life aspirations.
During the independence era, nationalist movements often pledged to reverse the colonial exclusion of women, promising them greater inclusion and equality to gain widespread societal support. However, once in power, these politicians frequently reneged on such promises, even while continuing to rely on women and women’s organizations for their own nationalist goals.
After independence, nationalist objectives often overshadowed the need for a separate women’s movement. While there were some notable social improvements, like increased female literacy and education, most African nations restricted women’s access to political parties, ministerial posts, and positions of power. In Ghana, for instance, Kwame Nkrumah’s Convention People’s Party (CPP) relied heavily on market women for campaigning, but few women were integrated into the actual ruling political institutions. However, in instances where armed liberation movements arose such as in the Portuguese colonies (Guinea-Bissau, Angola, and Mozambique), as well as Kenya and Rhodesia women frequently held leadership roles, fought alongside men, and provided crucial support to the liberation efforts.
The challenges faced by African women became clear during the United Nations Decade of Women (1975–1985), which highlighted issues like the increasing feminization of poverty and rising rates of infant malnutrition, mortality, and maternal deaths (Englebert and Dunn, 2019). Commenting on the socioeconomic status of African women at the close of the 20th century, Mikell (1997) rightly observed, “African women know that they have borne the brunt of the crises of their states over the past two decades.”
Since the 1990s, the increasing political openness in most African countries has opened up new avenues for women. This period has seen the rise of various women’s organizations across the continent, ranging from professional and advocacy groups to economic associations. As Carolyn Shaw (2015) observes in her study of female activism in Zimbabwe, these developments have occurred even though “feminism” is often viewed as a Western idea that clashes with traditional perceptions of women as mothers and obedient wives.
The last few decades have witnessed a surge in women’s activism and significant achievements by African women’s movements (Badri & Tripp 2017). These activists contributed to the eventual election of the first female president on the continent.
Despite formidable hurdles, African women have consistently demonstrated remarkable persistence and perseverance. Following the achievement of independence by most African states, a new era of opportunity began to emerge, illuminating previously closed paths.
A pivotal moment arrived in 2005 when Her Excellency Ellen Johnson Sirleaf became the president of Liberia, marking her as the first female president in Africa and paving the way for other aspiring women leaders across the continent. Her distinguished career began with her appointment as Deputy Finance Minister from 1971 to 1974 under William Tolbert’s government, followed by her service as Minister of Finance from 1979 to 1980. After fleeing Liberia in 1980 due to Samuel Doe’s coup, she eventually returned. Though she ran unsuccessfully for a senatorial seat in 1985 and placed second in the 1997 presidential elections, her persistence paid off with her victory in 2005. Sworn into office on January 16, 2006, she was re-elected for a second term in 2011. As Africa’s first elected female president, she became a profound trailblazer. Sirleaf has garnered numerous prestigious awards, including the Nobel Peace Prize in 2011 for her efforts to involve women in peacekeeping processes, and held significant leadership roles, such as becoming the first woman to chair the Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS) since its inception.
Inspired by trailblazers like Sirleaf, many women in Africa have since risen to the highest political echelons. Sylvie Kinigi served as Burundi’s first female Prime Minister from 1993 to 1994, and Ivy Matsepe-Cassaburi temporarily served as acting president of South Africa in 2005. From 2009 to 2014, Joyce Hilda Banda became Malawi’s first female Vice President and later President, after serving as Minister for Foreign Affairs from 2006 to 2009, among other political roles. Ameenah Gurib-Fakim was Mauritius’s first female president between 2015 and 2018. Tanzania’s political landscape shifted profoundly on March 19, 2021, when Samia Suluhu Hassan was sworn in as the nation’s first female president. Her assumption of the highest office came after the death of then-President John Magufuli, marking a significant milestone that built upon her earlier role as Tanzania’s inaugural first female Vice President from 2015 to 2021. The period between 2018 and 2024 marked notable progress for women in high office across Africa. Ethiopia inaugurated its first female president, Sahle-Work Zewde, who held the position until 2024. Concurrently, Liberia welcomed its first female vice president, Jewel Cianeh Taylor, serving alongside President George Weah.
Professor Naana Jane Opoku Agyemang, former first female vice chancellor of the University of Cape Coast, became the first female vice president of Ghana under President John Dramani Mahama and was sworn in on January 7, 2025.
Netumbo Nandi-Ndaitwah is currently the first female president of Namibia, sworn in on 21st March 2025. She served as the vice president to President Nangolo Mbumba between 2024 and 2025. She first served as the minister of environment and tourism from 2010 to 2012, and then as minister of international relations and cooperation from 2012 to 2015, as well as the deputy prime minister of Namibia from 2015 to 2024, before finally taking the highest office of the land.
Women’s political influence extends beyond elected office to party leadership and presidential candidacy. In Ghana, for instance, Mrs. Nana Konadu Agyemang-Rawlings not only led the National Democratic Party but also stood as its presidential candidate in 2016, she has been a trailblazer for women empowerment and gender equality in Ghana. Similarly, Madam Akua Donkor served as both leader and presidential candidate for the Ghana Freedom Party in the same year. More recently, in 2020, Mrs. Brigitte Dzugbenuku was the flagbearer for the Progressive People’s Party.
Women have also been appointed as prime ministers in several African nations, including Mali (2011–2012), Mozambique (2004–2010), Senegal (2013–2014), and Namibia (since 2015). By early 2019, ten African women had served as heads of state or government, though only two of these achieved their positions through popular election. Rwanda stands out globally, not just in Africa, with women making up 63% of its parliament’s lower house. In October 2018, Ethiopia’s prime minister appointed a cabinet where half of the ministers were women.
More broadly, Africa has seen an extraordinary increase in women’s legislative representation, tripling from 1.8% in 1990 to 22.2% in 2015. Proportionately, Africa now has more women in cabinet positions (20%) than other global regions (18%) (Tripp, 2016). This progress is largely attributed to the widespread adoption of quotas by the African states. Over 65% of African countries implement some form of quota to boost female legislative representation.
Beyond electoral politics, African women have secured significant appointments in other high- ranking non-political sectors. A notable Ghanaian example is Gloria Adwoa Amon Nikoi, who pioneered as the first woman to hold the position of Foreign Affairs Minister in 1979 during the Armed Forces Revolutionary Council (AFRC) era. Ghana has consistently advanced women’s representation in the judiciary, appointing three female Supreme Court Justices since its independence. These include Justice Georgina Theodora Wood, who served from 2007 to 2017 and was succeeded by Justice Sophia Akuffo (2017–2019). The current Chief Justice, who was suspended on April 22, 2025, Justice Gertrude Araba Esaaba Torkornoo, has held the position since 2023, continuing this legacy. Ghana has also had its first female speaker of parliament, Joyce Adeline Bamford-Addo who served from 2009 to 2013. She became the first woman to be elected to that position within the West African sub-region.
The experiences of women in Africa, spanning from formal electoral politics to the informal economy, remain incredibly diverse across the continent. These varying roles underscore the significant and ongoing importance of women in mainstream African politics (Dunn & Englebert, 2019).
In addition to occupying top political positions across the African continent, African women are also holding influential roles on the global stage. For example, Ngozi Okonjo-Iweala, former Minister of Finance for Nigeria (2003–2006) under President Olusegun Obasanjo and 2011–2015 under President Goodluck Jonathan, also briefly served as Minister of Foreign Affairs in 2006. In March 2021, she made history by becoming the first woman and the first African to lead the World Trade Organization as Director-General.
Martha Ama Akyaa Pobee has blazed a trail in international diplomacy. She first distinguished herself as Ghana’s inaugural first female Permanent Representative to the United Nations, serving from 2015 to 2021. Her influence expanded further when, in 2021, she became the first woman and first African to be appointed Assistant Secretary-General of the United Nations for Africa, a position she currently holds.
Similarly, Shirley Ayorkor Botchway, Ghana’s former Minister for Foreign Affairs and Regional Integration, was appointed Commonwealth Secretary-General on April 1, 2025, further demonstrating the growing influence of African women in global governance.
This increasing prominence is not without historical precedent. Traditionally, women held vital leadership roles in many African societies, and their recent rise can be seen as a restoration of the balance that colonial rule disrupted but never entirely erased.
The election of Namibia’s current president, a woman, reaffirms the continent’s ongoing commitment to gender equality and highlights the indispensable role of African women in shaping Africa’s development and future.
Conclusion
Reflecting on the historical and contemporary roles of African women reveals a legacy of resilience, leadership, and agency, despite persistent obstacles. From the pre-colonial period, where they wielded considerable influence in political, economic, and social spheres, to the colonial era that undermined their status, African women have continuously demonstrated their strength and adaptability. The postcolonial resurgence of women’s activism, coupled with the growing representation of women in political and economic spheres, signifies a reclaiming of the authority that was historically theirs. However, challenges remain, including entrenched patriarchal systems, discriminatory legal frameworks, and limited access to resources and decision-making positions.
Moving forward, a multi-faceted approach is essential: strengthening educational opportunities for girls, ensuring equitable economic policies, reforming legal systems to guarantee women’s rights, and fostering inclusive governance that values women’s voices and contributions. By embracing both historical lessons and contemporary innovations, African societies can work towards a future where women’s empowerment is not just a goal but a lived reality that drives sustainable development and social progress.
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Photo credit: https://borgenproject.org/the-potential-of-womens-leadership-in-africa/
